Staphylomas is a localized bulging of weak and thin outer tunic of eyeball, lined by uveal tissue. Types- 1. Anterior staphyloma. 2. Intercalary staphyloma.
When eyes are covered insufficiently by the lids and there is loss of protective mechanism of blinking, then it is called exposure keratitis. Causes- 1. Extreme proptosis.
Bacterial corneal ulcer is caused when the local ocular defense mechanisms are not working properly and the immunity of the body is very low due to which infecting organisms enters the body easily and infected it with different causative micro-organisms and spread diseases. Causes -
When the accommodative power of eye is significantly reduced than the normal biological limit according to patient’s age, then this is called insufficiency of accommodation. Causes- 1. Premature sclerosis of lens.
Irregular astigmatism is refractive error in which there is change of refractive power in indifferent way or in irregular way in different meridia. Types - 1. Curvatural irregular astigmatism. 2. Index irregular astigmatism.
Achalasia of oesophagus occurs at any age but it usually affects middle age patients. There is hypertonic lower oesophageal sphincter. There is failure of propagated oesophageal contraction.
Acute membranous conjunctivitis is acute inflammation of the conjunctiva. It is caused by Corynebacterium diphtheria. There is formation of membrane in the palpebral conjunctiva and coagulative necrosis.
Cardiac arrest is the sudden and complete loss of cardiac output due to asystole, ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation or loss of mechanical cardiac contraction. Victim is unconscious and pulse-less completely after cardiac arrest. Arrhythmia is there. Coronary artery disease is the most common condition leading to cardiac arrest.
The most common enzyme defect in congenital hyperplasia is 21-hydroxylase deficiency. This enzyme defect is inherited as autosomal recessive trait. Symptoms- 1. Glucocorticoid deficiency. 2. Mineralocorticoid deficiency.
Seronegative spondarthritis is a group of inflammatory joint diseases, distinct from rheumatoid arthritis, that are thought to share similar pathogenesis.
Gut infection usually results from human Mycobacterium tuberculosis which is swallowed after coughing. The area most commonly affected is the ileocaecal region.
It refers to the phenomena that occur when substantial amounts of protein are lost in urine. In the morning, the upper limbs and face may be more affected. In children, ascites occurs early and oedema is often seen only in the face.
Acute inflammation within the tubulo-interstitium is most commonly allergic, particularly to drugs, but other causes include toxins and a variety of systemic diseases and infections. Leucocyturia is common and eosinophils are found in the urine in up to 70% of patients.
Aortic regurgitation is due to disease of aortic valve cusps or dilatation of the aortic root. The left ventricle dilates and hypertrophies to compensate for the regurgitation.
Patients with a clone of B lymphocytes secreting free immunoglobulin light chains filter these freely into the urine. This may occur in amyloidosis and plasma cell dyscrasias, but is particularly important as a marker for myeloma. This was all in brief about Bence Jones Proteinuria. Now know about Microalbuminuria here- Microalbuminuria
It is the urinary excretion of small amounts of normal albumin protein. The presence of albumin in the urine is a clear sign of glomerular abnormality and can identify the very early stages of progressive glomerular disease.
Sodium depletion can occur occasionally under extreme environmental conditions as a result of inadequate intake of salt, but it is much more commonly due to pathological loses of sodium containing fluids. Loss of whole blood, as in acute hemorrhage is also a cause of hypovolaemia.
By handling a dog or drinking contaminated water, humans may ingest eggs of Echinococcus Granulosus. Dogs are definitive hosts of Echinococcus Granulosus.
Cestodes are ribbon shaped worms which inhabit the intestinal tract. Human acquire them by eating undercooked beef infected with Cpysticercus bovis, undercooked pork or undercooked freshwater fish containing larvae.
Trichinella spiralis is transmitted to humans if they eat partially cooked infected pork. Symptoms result from invasion of intestinal submucosa by ingested larvae, which develop into adult worms and the secondary invasion of tissues by fresh larvae produced by these adult worms.
It is caused by the Staphylococcus aureus. This organism is released from cutaneous lesions such as boil, carbuncle, abscess of the breast, whitlow, etc. Injury to the kidney often predisposes this condition, which forms small hematoma which acts as good nidus for the growth of the organisms.
These usually start at the age of about 13 years in the distal segments of the colon and rectum. More and more polyps gradually appear till the age of about 20 years when the entire colon and rectum are involved.
It consists of pointed or blunt finger like processes of lamina propria covered by epithelium that shows branching. This type is often sessile than pedunculated. Majority of this lesion is more than 1 cm in size and in fact 60% of villous adenoma are over 2 cm in diameter.
It is the most common neoplasm of colon and rectum. This condition is rare in patients under 20 years of age. Its incidence increases as age advances and majority of patients are in the sixth decade.
Cholangiocarcinoma is a carcinoma arising from the small ducts or ductules, though carcinoma may occur in major hepatic ducts outside the liver substance.
These ulcers are associated with ‘erythrocyanosis frigida’, which is an exclusive disease of young women. These patients have thick ankles with abnormal amount of subcutaneous fat, combined with an abnormally poor arterial supply to the ankle skin.
These ulcers are caused by inadequate skin circulation. These occur in those parts of the limbs which are subjected to repeated pressure and trauma. Prolonged pressure on one part of the foot causes ischemic damage to the tissues and if the circulation is inadequate then the tissues cannot repair themselves and ischemic ulcer develops.
Sickle cell anemia is hereditary hemolytic anemia. This disease is characterized by presence of sickle and crescent shaped erythrocytes. The normal HbA that is adult hemoglobin is replaced by HbS that is abnormal sickle hemoglobin.
In thalassaemia the main defect is in hemoglobin polypeptide chain synthesis. Specific pairs of genes are responsible for synthesis of alpha, beta, gamma and delta chains of the hemoglobin molecules and deficiency of synthesis of one of these chains will lead to thalassaemia.
It is a hemorrhagic disorder characterized by subnormal platelet count in presence of bone marrow containing normal or increased megakaryocytes and in absence of any systemic disease.
Two third of popliteal aneurysms are bilateral. One third of these cases may be seen to accompany aortic aneurysm. Almost all popliteal aneurysms are atherosclerotic. It usually involves upper two third of the artery. It usually occurs in men in sixth and seventh decades of life, half of whom are hypertensives. It is frequently symptomless and may be self limiting.
The disease often represents the end stage of an undiagnosed viral pericarditis. Traumatic haemopericardium may evolve to constrictive pericarditis. It may be a complication of open heart surgery.
Atherosclerosis is the fundamental cause of ischaemic heart disease. It involves males about four times more than females. Disorders of lipid metabolism such as diabetes, hypothyroidism and hypercholesterolemia are often associated with coronary atherosclerosis.
Aortic insufficiency is a heart disease. The patient of this disease suffers from palpitations. Patient gets difficulty in respiration on slight exertion. This disease is caused by causes like syphilis and rheumatic fever. Like that there are 5 causes that cause this disease. Lets have a look on various causes and symptoms of this disease. Image Source - https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aortic_insufficiency.gif